The French Revolution

This is Sleepy History. Sleepy History is a production of slumber studios. To listen ad-free, get access to bonus episodes and support the ongoing production of this show. Check out our premium feed. It's been described as one of the most important events in Western history. An extraordinary upheaval of the old order that would change just about everything in French society. And with repercussions that spread far beyond. But what was the French Revolution exactly? What were the defining moments of this turbulent 10-year event? And how did it begin in the first place? Tonight we'll explore the story of the revolution in depth. And discover how political progress came at a price. So just relax and let your mind drift as we explore the sleepy history of the French Revolution. In May of 1789, France was on the verge of a crisis. The country was almost bankrupt. For the first time since 1614, an important assembly was called Adversai, a gathering known as the Estates General. This consisted of the first estate, the clergy, the second estate, the nobility, and the third estate, the commoners. Now, while this may sound like fairly balanced representation, that wasn't the case. Even though there were 578 deputies representing the third estate, a larger proportion compared to the clergy or the nobility, it was decided that votes would be counted by a state rather than by person. It was obvious that the upper classes would stick together, rendering the third estate powerless. Rising tension led to a weak long standoff. On the 20th of June, it culminated in the deputies of the third estate being locked out of the assembly hall. Enough was enough. The exiled deputies quickly congregated in another room, the nearby Royal Tennis Court, as it was one of the few spaces that was large enough to fit them all. That day, they swore the tennis court oath. In this oath, the third estate publicly proclaimed themselves to be the National Assembly. They would not disband until a new constitution of France was established. Take a moment to imagine this scene. Nearly 600 men in the Royal Tennis Court of Versailles, their voices raised in animated discussion, and then the simple act of signing a piece of paper. This was the beginning of the French Revolution. But before we get into what happened next, let's take the time to explore the background to this event. In order to understand the French Revolution, we need to understand a bit of context, why people in France were so unhappy and ready to revolt. As we've seen from the events of the Estates General, French society in the 18th century was far from a galletarian. Although the first two estates, the clergy and the nobility, made up only 2% of the population, they enjoyed various social privileges. Tax exemptions, for instance. It was the third estate, the commoners, who paid the vast majority of the taxes, despite being poorer. Another cause for discontent was resentment against the monarchy. On the throne at the time was King Louis XVI, who had become increasingly unpopular due to his weak leadership. Similarly unpopular was his wife Marie Antoinette. The king and queen enjoyed an extremely lavish lifestyle, and was seen to be contributing to France's financial crisis. Marie Antoinette even earned the nickname Madame Diffisite. In reality, however, the monarchy's personal spending wasn't the real issue. The reasons for France's financial woes are many and complex. But one significant cause was the country's involvement in the American Revolution. About a decade before the French Revolution, France joined the American Revolutionary War on the side of the Americans. They contributed money, supplies and troops. One of the main motivations was to undermine British power, as France and Britain were enemies at the time. In a way, France got what it wanted. America won the war. But the victory came at a cost. Already in debt before the war, France accumulated an additional debt of more than one billion lira, a huge amount. The country was now on the verge of bankruptcy. But with France's finances under strain, it wasn't the royalty or nobility who suffered. It was ordinary people. It's worth noting that the French population had grown significantly over the past century. By 1789, around 28 million people lived in France, with around 600,000 in Paris. More people meant more mouths to feed, and bad harvests in 1788 and 1789 led to widespread hunger and discontent, particularly among the poor. The cost of bread skyrocketed, making this essential food unaffordable for some. Now before we move on, there's one more important factor we need to consider, the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged in Western Europe in the late 17th century. There was an emphasis on reason and science and individual liberty. People began to challenge traditions, including traditional authorities like the monarchy and church. The French Revolution was fueled by Enlightenment ideals. Important figures, such as Maximilian Robespierre, who will be coming to later, were deeply influenced by the movement. Indeed, perhaps it was the Enlightenment that made the revolution possible. Maybe poverty and discontent alone wouldn't have been enough. People also needed a vision of how things could be different. With all this going on, it's little wonder that the French people were hungry for change. We can see why the actions of the third estate lit the spark of the revolution. The tennis court oath was sworn on the 20th of June, a date that may not particularly stand out. But perhaps the 14th of July rings a bell. In France, the 14th of July is still celebrated as Bastille Day. It commemorates the events of that day. in 1789, events that would set a disturbing precedent for violence. It all took place at the Bastille, a fortress and political prison in the centre of Paris. By July, there was growing unrest in the capital and appetite for insurrection. To the people of Paris, the Bastille was a symbol of royal tyranny. On the orders of the king, people could be imprisoned there without trial. In July 1789, the fortress was home to only seven prisoners and there were already plans to demolish the building. But as it turned out, perisians would get their first. On the 14th of July, a huge crowd gathered outside the Bastille. In theory, the intention was to confiscate its weapons and gunpowder. But things quickly escalated. Riled up with revolutionary further, the crowd stormed the Bastille. Approximately 1,000 insurgents versus 114 soldiers. The fighting went on all day. While the revolutionaries made up the majority of the casualties, ultimately, they were successful in taking the Bastille. The governor of the Bastille was killed as well as a prominent official. They were then decapitated and their heads were raised on pikes, a chilling and horrid site in the words of one witness. This act was significant. As we'll see, it set a precedent for the violence that would come to characterize the French Revolution. While some were sickened by what happened at the Bastille, the violence seems to have been generally accepted. Perhaps this can be explained by people's anger and the psychology of mob mentality. Other people may have seen the violence as unfortunate but necessary in order to achieve revolutionary aims. You may be wondering what the king made of all this. Ironically, Louis Diary entry on July the 14th was a single word, real meaning nothing. The news clearly hadn't reached aversi. The king only found out about the Bastille the following morning. "Is it a revolt?" he asked. "No, Sire," came the answer. "It's not a revolt. It's a revolution." In the following days, the Bastille was torn apart brick by brick. Some of the ruins were turned into souvenirs by an enterprising businessman, including papoites and miniature replicas of the fortress. Shortly after the destruction of the Bastille, another key event took place. The National Assembly, the assembly formed by the revolutionaries, drafted one of the defining documents of the era. It was entitled "The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen." Inspired by enlightenment values, this declaration was revolutionary indeed. It began with the following statement, "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights." Nowadays, this may not seem like a radical idea, but at the time, concepts such as true equality and individual liberty were new and exciting. The declaration was not just a statement for human rights, but also a direct challenge to the monarchy and the Arcean regime, or old regime that had dominated France for centuries. In the words of one historian, it was the credo of the new age. Among other things, the declaration insisted on freedom of speech and freedom of the press. The following month, a new newspaper appeared, "L'amid du purplé", or "The Friend of the People". It was written by the journalist Jean-Paul Morat, a radical and extremist. Morat was one of the most controversial characters of the French Revolution, due to his uncompromising attitude and incitement of violence. It's possible that his poor health contributed to his cynical outlook. Morat suffered from a serious skin disease and spent much of his time soaking in a medicinal bath. Nonetheless, he found the energy to launch his newspaper and encourage Revolution Reacts. In October 1789, Morat's paper urged people to take action, helping to stir up existing unrest. Many people in Paris were furious about the price and scarcity of bread. A large crowd began to form, mostly consisting of women who worked in the markets. As the crowd grew and tempest fled, the mob decided to march to Versailles, a six-hour trek in the rain. What happened next was similar to events at the Bastille. Things escalated quickly, descending into violence. Early the following morning, a group of protesters broke into the palace, attacking royal guards. The king and queen were lucky to escape with their lives, but in order to placate the mob, they had to agree to leave Versailles and move to Paris. In an extraordinary turn of events, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were now essentially the prisoners of the French people. That afternoon, a surreal procession made its way towards Paris. The royal family were escorted to the capital, surrounded by a jubilant crowd of 60,000 people. Guardsmen carried loaves of bread on the tips of their bayonets. Also held aloft were the heads of royal guards. In Paris, the king and queen moved into the somewhat dilapidated Twylery palace. They would never return to Versailles. By this point, the Ossier regime was as good as dead, and the monarchy's days were numbered. Over the next 18 months, things were relatively quiet, at least on the surface. Some even thought that the revolution might be over. However, from the revolutionary's perspective, there was still plenty of work to be done, which included weakening the power of the Catholic Church. The king was also uncomfortably aware of his diminishing power, and by June of 1791, he decided that it was time to take action. One night, King Louis and his family snuck out of the Twylery palace and fled the city. The plan was to reach Mont-Médit, a town in north-eastern France near the border. Loyalist troops were stationed there, and Louis hoped that he could regain his freedom. But fate had other plans. In the town of Varin, just 30 miles from their destination, the king and his family were stopped, identified, and swiftly arrested. On the orders of the National Assembly, the royal family were brought back to Paris, And in the end, we are going to have a great time. essentially placed on the house arrest at the Twila Repalace. Their failed attempt to flee was seen as a betrayal, even an act of treason. Many suspected that Louis was conspiring with foreign powers such as Austria and planning to overthrow the revolution. Prior to the flight to Varin, as the event came to be known, some revolutionaries believed that it would be possible to continue with a constitutional monarchy. But now, many were convinced that the monarchy would have to be abolished altogether. These were two mulch-u-as-times. Less than a year later, in April 1792, the French Revolutionary Wars began. This was a series of conflicts that would last for a decade and have a transformative effect on Europe. The details of these wars are beyond the scope of this story. For our purposes, what we need to understand is this. The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars put France under pressure, accelerating the revolution and the downfall of the monarchy. In 1791, the leaders of Austria and Prussia had issued a joint statement, the Declaration of Pylonins. It wasn't appealed to other European powers to unite, to take a stand against the French Revolution and show support for King Louis. In response, the legislative assembly, the successor to the National Assembly, declared war against Austria. But this wasn't exactly the best time to go to war. The French army just wasn't ready. By August 1792, the atmosphere in Paris had become extremely tense. The Prussian army, who had joined the war alongside Austria, was slowly advancing towards the French capital. Then, the commander of the army, the Duke of Brunswick issued a statement, the Brunswick manifesto. Essentially, it was an attempt to intimidate the people of Paris. If the royal family were harmed, troops would inflict an unforgettable vengeance destroying the city. But this threat backfired. Instead of intimidating people into submission, it riled them up even further. Parisians were enraged and things came to a head on the 10th August when armed revolutionaries stormed the Tweetlary Palace. It was 20,000 attackers against fewer than a thousand defenders. The Swiss guards on duty at the palace didn't stand a chance. Hundreds died on both sides, but in the end, the revolutionaries won. And while the royal family survived, it was clear to all that this was the beginning of the end. In the aftermath of the insurrection, the king was imprisoned in the Tompler, a medieval fortress in Paris. A few weeks later, in September 1792, the monarchy was officially ended and a republic established. However, the violence was far from over. During the September massacres, as they came to be known, mobs invaded the prisons of Paris and murdered more than a thousand prisoners. The massacres were motivated primarily by fear and a general atmosphere of hysteria. Across Europe, people were appalled, even those who had initially been sympathetic to the revolutionaries' cause. As we've seen, violence had already played a part in the revolution. But the September massacres were another turning point, a new standard for what was in the eyes of some acceptable. If there's a single object that symbolizes the French Revolution, it would have to be the Gillotine, the execution device that ended the lives of thousands. However, as barbaric as it might seem, the Gillotine was actually intended to be humane. The device was named after a physician, Yosef Inias Guiotta. In October 1789, at the very beginning of the revolution, Guiotta made a proposal to the National Assembly. Rather than using cruel, outdated methods of capital punishment, the Gillotine should be used instead. It ensured a quick painless death by decapitation. What's more, if used on people of all classes, the Gillotine represented equality. From commoners to nobility, all were equal in death. In December 1792, this principle was about to be put into practice. The King was still imprisoned, and the National Convention, the successor to the legislative assembly, were debating what to do with him. While someone did to keep Louis alive, others believed he was too powerful a symbol. The King was formally accused of high treason and crimes against the state. He was put on trial and, to no one's surprise, found guilty by a huge majority. But when it was time to vote on a sentence, it became clear that not everyone was in agreement. While some voted for the King's immediate execution, many others voted for an alternative, such as imprisonment or exile. Ultimately, however, he was condemned to death. On 21 January 1793, at the age of 38, Louis was sent to the Gillotine. By the end of the year, Marie Antoinette would meet the same fate as her husband. After ruling for more than a thousand years, the French monarchy was over. There were differences in opinions among the revolutionaries. Not everyone had pushed for the execution of the King. A political organization known as the Jacobin Club formed at the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789. Some members later became divided into two rival factions, the Gironda, who were more moderate, and the Mottania, who had a reputation for being radical. As they came to dominate the Jacobin Club, the Mottania became known as the Jacobins, which is the term we'll use for the sake of simplicity. Many Jacobins believed that violence could be justified to achieve political goals. Two of the most famous names in the French Revolution were Jacobins, Maximilian Robespierre and Jean-Paul Moratre. Robespierre was a lawyer who rose to prominence as a radical Jacobin leader. Inspired by the values of the Enlightenment, many of his ideas were progressive for the time. Initially, for example, he was against the death penalty, but as we'll see in just a moment, that was about to change. Morat, whom we mentioned earlier, was a journalist who published an influential newspaper. He actively encouraged violence against enemies of the revolution. As an extremist, Marat attracted devoted funds. but he was also despised by many. A young woman named Charlotte Corday was particularly alarmed by Miraz actions. Corday, a Jewelgar sympathizer, believed that morale was to blame for the appalling violence of the September massacres. Something had to be done to stop him. So in July 1793, Corday decided to pay Miraz a visit. He was at home soaking in the medicinal bath where he spent most of his time when the visitor arrived, claiming to have important news. Still in the bath, Miraz agreed to meet with her a fatal mistake. Corday stabbed Miraz in the chest and he died almost immediately. During her trial, Corday was unrepentant, reportedly saying, "I killed one man to save 100,000." She went to the guillotine just a few days later. If she could have seen what happened next, she would have been horrified. By assassinating Miraz, she had inadvertently turned him into a martyr. A city temporarily renamed itself after him and he was viewed by many as an almost saint-like figure. Miraz's death was immortalized in a famous painting by Jacques Louis David. The religious style of the painting has led to comparisons with Michael Angelo's Pieter, a sculpture of Mary holding the body of Christ. At Miraz funeral, one eulogist went even further with this proclamation. Jesus was but a prophet, but Miraz is a god. Corday had hoped that Miraz's death would bring peace to France. In fact, the violence was about to escalate. By September of 1793, France was under enormous pressure. Military conflict in Europe was going badly and other nations were getting involved. Perhaps seeing an opportunity to weaken the power of the largest country in Western Europe. As well as fighting Austria, pressure, great Britain and Spain, among others, France also faced internal threats in surractions across the country. At the time, power in France was concentrated in an organization called the Committee of Public Safety. Radical Jacobins dominated the committee and one of the most prominent figures was Rubber Spear. According to Rubber Spear and his supporters, drastic measures were required to protect the revolution from its enemies. One politician allegedly said, "Let us make terror the order of the day." For some historians, September 1793 marks the beginning of the terror with a capital T. This was the period of the revolution defined by executions when many people in France quite literally lived in a state of terror. Police spies were everywhere and anyone suspected of counter-revolutionary activity or even just beliefs could quickly find themselves facing the guillotine. For instance, simply addressing someone as Monsieur instead of using the more egalitarian term, C'est voyant, or citizen, was seen as suspect. Throughout France, there was an atmosphere of fear and paranoia. It must have seemed as though the threat of the guillotine was hanging over everyone's heads. Also under attack was the institution of the church itself. This was nothing new. A few years earlier, in 1790, the National Assembly had confiscated lands belonging to the Catholic Church. Members of the clergy were made to swear loyalty to the state, the state first, the Pope second. Initially, attempts to weaken the power of the church might have been somewhat justifiable. Revolutionaries disapproved of the church's excessive wealth and corruption. They saw it as part of the old regime that needed to be dismantled. During the terror, attacks escalated. Monasteries were destroyed and hundreds of priests were exiled or executed. Many people in France and across Europe were appalled. As de-Christianization became widespread, not even the calendar was safe. In October of 1793, a new calendar was instituted. 1792 was now called Year One, while the months were given new names inspired by nature. For instance, October became Brumaire from the French word Brum, meaning mist. But these months didn't correspond exactly with the old Christian calendar and the weeks were different too. Months were now divided into three 10-day weeks. Officially, even the hours had changed. The country switched to decimal time, which meant there were 10 hours in a day, a hundred decimal minutes in an hour and so on. For the people of France, this was quite an adjustment. Laborers were particularly unhappy as the new system meant they got fewer days of rest, one day every 10 instead of seven. And with no more Sundays, it wasn't clear when church services were supposed to take place. But of course, as the new calendar was designed by the Revolutionary Government, this was intentional. We're coming up to another key date in the French Revolution, the ninth of Thermador Year Two, or to put it in more familiar terms, the 27th of July 1794. But before we get there, we need to understand what happened in the lead up to this day, from the end of 1793 to the summer of 1794. In this period, the terror was at its peak and Robespierre was at the height of his power and influence. With the committee of public safety ruling the country, any counter-revolutionary activity was quickly stamped out. A brutal example was set in Leon, after the city revolted, about 2,000 people were executed. Mass executions also took place in response to uprisings in the Wondee. While in No, there was a series of mass drownings. The politician who gave the orders referred to the river as the National Barthub, an echo of the nickname for the Gillotine, the National Razor. As chilling and unjustifiable as these events were, it has to be said that to an extent, the violence worked. During the terror, there was no doubt about who was in control. Robespierre, the man who had once opposed the death penalty, now approved the use of executions and made speeches associating terror with virtue. When his rival, Georges Donne-Ton, argued that the terror had gone too far and that it was time to end the violence, Robespierre ensured his execution. But Donne-Ton wasn't the only politician who had concerns about Robespierre. To many, it seemed like the man was losing his mind. In May 1794, Rubber's Pierre established a new state religion, the cult of the supreme being. Although he was against the Catholic Church, Rubber's Pierre believed that people needed something to believe in. It was a means of maintaining social order. In June, the festival of the supreme being took place in Paris. It was a massive event, an extravagant pageant involving a parade and a papier mache mountain. Tens of thousands of people showed up. And at the center of it all was Rubber's Pierre himself, proud and triumphant as he made speeches from the mountain summit. One on looker is said to have mattered. Look at him. It's not enough for him to be master. He has to be God. During the summer, there was a surge of state-ordered executions. Then, on the 26th of July, in this climate of fear and paranoia, Rubber's Pierre made a lengthy speech, which included ominously vague references to enemies. He also denied being a dictator, something which non-dictators usually don't have to clarify. For those present, it was clear that something needed to be done about Rubber's Pierre and his relentless reign of terror. By this stage of the revolution, you can probably guess what happened next. Rubber's Pierre was arrested and, after a failed attempt at taking his own life, executed by Gillatin on 28th July 1794. He had been arrested just a day before on 27th July or 9th of Thermador as it was known at the time. This date would go down in history as the day that Rubber's Pierre's reign came to an abrupt end. Ironically, his downfall might be compared to that of Louis XVI. Although the King and the politician were very different men, both came to be viewed as too powerful and representative of systems that had to end. And the only way to do that was through the execution of the figurehead. For some historians, the death of Rubber's Pierre marks the beginning of the end of the revolution. The following years were comparatively calm, though not without their challenges. The period immediately after Rubber's Pierre's death is known as the Thermadorian reaction. The government became more moderate, ending not just the reign of terror, but also to a large extent, policies such as decrystionisation. The days of Jacobin extremism were over. That being said, in 1795, there was an attempt by the Jacobins to take back control, but this rebellion was crushed as was a royalist uprising later that year. From November 1795, France was ruled by the French directory. The government aimed to restore stability, but as it was weak and generally unpopular, it didn't seem likely to last. Meanwhile, the wars in Europe were going quite well for France. As you may remember, the first years of the Revolutionary Wars had put the country under immense pressure. Now, however, the French army was larger and better organised, and the war effort as a whole was much more focused. This made it easier to defeat the nation's enemies, such as Austria and Prussia. Strong leadership also played a part, and one general in particular was making a name for himself, Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon led the Italian campaign of 1796 to 1797, a massive success for France. His military victories made him an influential figure in French politics, and many viewed him as a national hero. So, in simple terms, this was the situation in France in 1799, a weak and unpopular government, and a respected military. Having risen to prominence over the past few years, Napoleon was seen as a brilliant general, and a strong leader. Perhaps this was the man who could give the country some much needed stability. When we consider everything that happened over the previous decade, perhaps the most tumultuous in France's entire history, we can understand why Napoleon was able to seize power relatively easily. On the 18th of Brumaire, the 9th of November 1799, there was a smooth, bloodless coup d'état. Napoleon and his allies overthrew the government who didn't put up much resistance. The French directory was dissolved and replaced by a new regime, the French consulate. Although it was led by three consuls in reality, Napoleon was the one in charge. For most historians, the coup of the 18th of Brumaire marks the end of the French Revolution. But our story doesn't quite end here. The revolution has left a long and complex legacy. For instance, over the centuries, attitudes towards the Revolution's key players have varied greatly. Robespierre has been both celebrated and villainized. To this day, there are some who hold him almost entirely responsible for the terror, while others argue that other politicians also played a role. Similarly, there are conflicting opinions about the revolution itself. For some, the scale and extremity of the violence outweigh almost everything else. But others might argue that violence is sometimes necessary to transform an unjust society. And can't be denied is that the French Revolution changed not only France, but the world. It's spread principles of equality, giving birth to the slogan "liberty, equality, fraternity" and lay the foundations of modern liberal democracy. In part, many modern governments and ideologies owe their existence to the Revolution. Rights that we now take for granted, such as freedom of expression, can be traced back to 18th century France. While it may seem like these events happened a long time ago, it depends on your perspective. Some historians see the revolution as the start of the modern era. And so, perhaps to a greater extent than other historical events, the French Revolution remains surprisingly relevant. It offers us inspiration, lessons and warnings. This is what can happen when people take power into their own hands. [Motor] [Motor] [Motor] [Motor] [Motor] [Motor] [Motor] [Motor] [Motor]